TOPIC 4: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

 

Production; is the series of activities processes that brings goods and services to people. It includes creation, distribution and consumption of material things.

AGRICULTURE IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Agrculture; is an activity involving cultivating crops and keeping livestock. It started at the end of late stone age after human being had improved their tools of production.

§  Examples of crops cultivated in pre-colonial Africa were mainly food crops such as maize, sorghum, millet finger millet, yams and wheat.

§  Domesticated animals cattles, goats, sheep, camels and donkey.

Factors that influenced agriculture in pre-colonial Africa.

Agricultural practices depended on environmental factors such as.

(i) Conductive weather conditions such as rainfall.

(ii) Free from pests and diseases

(iii) Level of technology of a particular society

TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

CROP CULTIVATION

Crop cultivation is the type of agriculture involving the use of land to grow different type of crops. There are two types of crop cultivation practiced during the pre-colonial period, namely shifting cultivation and permanent crop cultivation.

Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn Agriculture)
Shifting cultivation is the type of agriculture involving the movement of farmers from one place to another. In this type of agriculture people cultivates certain piece of land until the soil is exhausted then they shift to another piece of land.

This type of crop cultivation was common in grassland areas with long dry seasons and scattered trees.

Examples

• West Africa: Yoruba, Igbo, Ashanti grown
• Central Africa: Kongo, Mongo
• East Africa: Some Bantu communities in Uganda and Tanzania.

Characteristics of shifting cultivation

(i) Practiced in savanna regions.

(ii) Relied on natural soil fertility, no chemical fertilizers.

(iii) Used simple tools such as hand hoes.

(iv) Small-scale farming, mainly for family consumption.

(v) It involves slashing and burning of bushes and grasses

Advantages of shifting cultivation

(i) Maintains soil fertility naturally.

(ii) Easy for communities with small populations.

(iii) Low labor costs and simple tools required.

Disadvantages

(i) Can lead to deforestation if fallow periods are too short.

(ii) Not suitable for densely populated areas.

(iii) Yields may decline if the same land is overused.

Permanent Crop Cultivation
Permanent crop cultivation is a farming method where farmers stay on one piece of land for many years, continuously growing crops without moving to new land. The soil is replenished using natural methods like manure or crop rotation.

Examples of societies

• East Africa: Buganda Kingdom (bananas, yams)
• West Africa: Hausa communities (millet, sorghum)
• North Africa: Nile Valley (wheat, barley, dates)

Characteristics

• Practiced in fertile areas: river valleys, highlands, and regions with good rainfall.
• Settled communities: farmers lived in permanent villages.
• Allowed larger yields than shifting cultivation.
• Supported trade and kingdom growth due to surplus crops.

Advantages

• Produces larger and more reliable harvests.
• Supports population growth and permanent settlements.
• Encourages development of irrigation and terraces for better farming.

Disadvantages

• Requires more labor and tools.
• Risk of soil exhaustion if not properly managed.
• Vulnerable to pests and crop diseases if the same land is used continuously.

PASTORALISM (ANIMAL HUSBANDRY)
Pastoralism is a form of agriculture which deals with livestock keeping as the main source of livelihood. It was common in dry and semi-arid areas where crop cultivation was difficult

Examples in Pre-Colonial Africa

• East Africa: Maasai (Kenya, Tanzania)
• West Africa: Fulani (Nigeria, Senegal)
• North Africa: Tuareg (Sahara Desert)
• Horn of Africa: Somali pastoralists

Types of pastoralism

There were two types of pastoral societies, namely nomadic and sedentary or settled pastoralists.

(a) Nomadic pastoralism

Is practiced by wondering groups of people who were moving from one place to another in search of pasture and water. Nomads are group of people who move from one place to another around seasonally in search of food and water.

§  The farmers specialize in keeping animals on natural pasture land for example, Masai, Barbaigs, Kwavi, Karamajong.

 (c) Sedentary pastoralism

This is a system of livestock keeping where by a farmer keeps animals while settled permanently in one place. The livestock kept include cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkey.

These communities were located near water sources and grazing areas. Livestock keeping in pre-colonial Africa was very important in providing food, clothing and shelter.

Examples of societies

§  In the savannah region of Southern Africa were San and Khoikhoi

§  In West Africa the Fulan they adopted from nomadic pastoralism.

 

Characteristics pastoralism in pre-colonial Africa

(i) Practiced in arid and semi-arid regions: savannas, Sahel, deserts.

(ii) Depended heavily on natural pasture and water sources.

(iii) Required mobility to survive seasonal changes.

(iv) Provided food security in regions unsuitable for crops.

(v) Animals kept for prestige, eg. for paying bride gift and  food and not for economic gain.

(vi) The herds are large in size

(vii) There is poor control of pests and other diseases

(viii) The animals are of poor quality and low value

Advantages

• Livestock provides food, clothing, and trade goods.
• Adaptable to harsh and dry climates.
• Supports wealth and social status in communities.

Disadvantages

• Risk of disease outbreaks among animals.
• Droughts could lead to livestock loss.
• Conflicts could arise over water and grazing land.

MIXED FARMING
Mixed farming is an agricultural practice where farmers grow crops and keep livestock. It combines crop cultivation and animal husbandry to improve food security and soil fertility.

This type of agriculture practiced in areas with heavy rainfall as well as in grassland with seasonal rainfall and woodland savannah.

Examples in Pre-Colonial Africa

• Int East Africa practiced by Gogo, Nyaturu, Nyirambsa, Sukuma, Nyamwezi and Hutu, Ankore Pare and Kimbu.
• Great Lakes Region (East Africa): produced Bananas, millet + cattle.
• West Africa: Yams, sorghum + goats, sheep.
• Southern Africa: Millet + cattle in Zimbabwe and Zambia

 

Characteristics of mixed farming

• Combines subsistence farming and pastoralism.
• Helps maintain soil fertility naturally.
• Provides diverse sources of food and income.
• Practiced in highland, riverine, and fertile plains.

Advantages

• Reduces the risk of food shortage because of multiple sources.
• Provides fertilizer naturally through livestock manure.
• Supports trade with surplus crops and animal products.
• Encourages permanent settlements and community development.

Disadvantages

• Requires more labor and careful management.
• Disease or drought can affect both crops and livestock.
• Needs sufficient land for both farming and grazing..

HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
Industries-Is the place where raw materials are processed into finished goods. For example,  cotton processed to cloth. In pre-colonial Africa the availability of natural resources determined the nature of industries found in the area.

Handcraft industries: these are industries where by people used hands and skills to produce tools and weapons of these industries.

Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.

The industries which people used hand and skills to make and design tools and weapons includes.

§  Iron working

§  Salt making industries

§  Copper mining;

§  Gold mining;

§  Pottery making;

§  Spinning and weaving industries;

§  Bark cloth industries;

§  Canoe making industries

SALT MAKING INDUSTRIES

These are industries, which engaged in production of soil in pre-colonial Africa.

Methods of obtaining salt

·         Obtaining salt from different reeds:  Reeds were collected, dried and burned, the ashes would be filtered while the ashes remain liquid would be evaporated and residue would be used as salt.
Places: - Near Lake Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert, among Buganda and Bahaya tribes and among Mang’anja people near shores of Lake Nyasa.

·         Obtaining salt by boiling and evaporating method. Sea or ocean water put into pans and left to evaporate, the salt crystals would be collected and used as salt.
Places: around coastal areas.

·         Obtaining salt by mining under neath rocks. Places: At Taghaza, Bilma around Lake Chad in western Sudan. Near lake Bangwela and river Luapala in central Africa.

·         Obtaining salt using water by fire.  Spring water containing salt was boiled and finally salt was obtained. Places with salt; in uvinza salt spring along river malagarasi in central Africa.

TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA: Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and services between people. There was need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities. Trade tends to develop in any society where there is surplus production.

 

LOCAL TRADE.  Refers to the kind of trade, which is conducted within the same geographical area. In local trade, goods are exchanged between people living in the same geographical area, such as a town or village. Local trade was not for profit making but just to obtain essential goods. i.e. pastoral communities like the Maasai needed vegetables and grains from cultivators like the Nyakyusa and the Chaga.
Impacts of local trade.
1. Local trade united people within the same area.
2. Communities obtained goods such as tools, weapons, foodstuffs and medical herbs.
3. Transport routes were improved.
4. Some important market centers emerged along the market routes.
5. Local trade encouraged communities to expand production.

 

REGIONAL TRADE. Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another (Trade conducted between two different geographical regions). Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods compared to local trade. It was not for profit making. For example, regional trade was Trans Sahara trade, Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa. Regional trade in the pre-colonial Africa took place in 19^th century.

THE KAMBA. The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northern route in the 19^th century. They Kamba caravan brought ivory, guns, hides and beeswax from the interior. From the Coast they obtained cloth, salt, copper, cowrie’s shells and jewellery.

THE YAO. The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa. They also captured and sold slaves from neighboring communities, Yao chiefs such as Mpanda, Mataka, Machemba and Mtalika dominated the Southern route during the long distance trade.

THE NYAMWEZI. The Nyamwezi dominated the central route conducted trade between the interior of Tanganyika and the coast. The Nyamwezi sold slaves and ivory, hide rhinoceros horn..
Impacts/ effects of regional trade.
Positive consequences/impacts.

§  Some traders became very rich. e.g. Mirambo and Isike.

§  The communities were able to obtain new commodities e.g. guns, clothes, beads, ivory, etc.

§  The rise of trade centers such as Saadans, Pangani, Bagamoyo, Tabora, Ujiji, Voi, and Taveta.

§  The rise of trade routes.

§  The rise of powerful Empires/Kingdoms such as Nyamwezi.

§  New food crops such as maize, rice and cassava were introduced.

§  Spread of Islam by the Arabs to the interior Tabora and Ujiji.

Negative impacts.

• The rise of inter-tribal wars in Oder to get slaves.
• Many elephants were killed, as there was high demand of Ivory.
• It led to depopulation and under development in some areas.
• Slave raids caused insecurity and loss of innocent lives.
• Foreigners used trade routes to reach to the interior.
•  Exploitation of African wealth by Europeans and Asians.
• Decline of local industries in Africa.

 

LONG DISTANCE TRADE. Long distance trade was the trade carried out long distance as people/traders had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.

TRANS SAHARAN TRADE: Trans Sahara trade was the trade conducted across the Sahara desert. It involved the people of Northern Africa and the people of Western Sudan. This trade started long time ago between 3000BC to 2000BC. It became important in the 1^st century AD after the people of West Africa to discover the use of camel and led to formation of many trade routes. The Trans Saharan trade was known as dumb trade because there was no common language, which was used. People who involved in the trade; West Africa; North Africa and Savannah Region.

MOVEMENT OF TRADERS.
People (traders) organized themselves in groups known as CARAVANS

Goods involved in the trade
Kola nuts, gold, salt, foodstuffs, Ivory, clothes, gold, bee-wax, slaves and ostrich feathers goods from West. In addition, from North Africa salt and animal skin. Goods from Europe and Asia were cotton and silk cloth, swords, guns, metal pans, horses and Arabic books.

Trade routes:
(a) Western route- From Sijilmasa, Fez in Morocco passed through Taghaza, Taodeni, Walata, Audaghost, and Kumbi Saleh to Timbuktu.

(b) Central route- This passed Tunis, Ghat, Ghamese, Kano, GAO and Hausa land.
(c) Eastern route- This began in Tripoli, Marzul and Bilma.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
The following are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade:

§  Stability of the communities: Both North African and Western Sudan zone were politically stable. For example, leaders like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa collected taxes and established guides on trade routes. This enabled the people to conduct trade without fear. Up to the end of the 15th century AD, many traders were motivated to come to Western Sudan for trade.

§   Western Sudan provided goods needed by traders from Europe. These goods included gold, ivory and slaves. Through trading Western Sudan exchanged her own commodities with goods from Western Europe and Asia. In turn, she got clothes, guns and other commodities. The surplus production in Western Sudan was adequate to sustain demand for products such as kolanuts and gold, hides, ivory slaves, whereas Taghaza produced enough salt to meet the needs in Western Sudan. The high production capacity in the region enhanced the growth of the Trans Saharan trade.

§  Honesty: The Berbers of North Africa and the African traders of Western Africa trusted each other. Traders brought in commodities without fear of theft and robbery, enabling the trade to flourish.

§  The use of camels for transport suited the desert conditions and facilitated the development of the Trans-Saharan trade. These animals could not only carry more commodities than horses and human porters, but also endured desert conditions. Camels can survive without water for a longtime. This convenient means of transport strengthened the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.

§  Geographical location of the region: The location and climate favored the production of kola nuts and other foodstuffs that were needed in the community, especially the forest region to the south. The region of Western Sudan had no impassable forests because many areas were covered by short grassland. This enabled traders to cross the desert without fear or any difficulty.

§  The invention of a medium of exchange contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade. At the beginning, only the silent barter system of trade was practiced. Later on, cowrie shells were introduced as a convenient medium of exchange. This in turn facilitated the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.

§  From the northern part, the Berbers provided capital to many traders who used to cross the Sahara desert.

§  Removal of language barrier: This was attained after Arabic language became the trader’s medium of communication. This in turn facilitated the trade by making communication between the traders easy.

§  Absence of competition for trading activities in the region: There were no regular ships that visited the coast of West Africa. As a result, what was produced from the forest zone was peacefully transported to North Africa through the Saharan desert.

§  Scarcity of commodities like gold and salt.

§  Introduction of horses, which were used in conquest and expansion.

EFFECTS OF THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE IN AFRICA.
1. It led to the growth of empires like Ghana, Mali etc
2. It increased development of Agriculture.
3. It led to the introduction of Arabic Islamic religion cultures.
4. Formation of mixed races example half cast
5. Growth of town and cities e.g. Jenne, Timbuktu, GAO and Walata.

THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
By the second half of the nineteenth century, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade started to decline. A number of obstacles or problems have been identified to explain the decline. These are:-

v  Strong desert winds: The traders could not withstand the hazards of sand storms. Many abandoned the trade as a result.

v  Traders faced the danger of getting lost in the desert because the routes were not clear. Once traders got lost, they would wander in the desert for a long time and eventually die of thirst and starvation.

v  Desert robbers who made their living by stealing from trade caravans subjected traders to attacks. In the process, traders lost their lives and goods. This discouraged traders from participating effectively in the trade.

v  The extreme climatic conditions were unfavorable to traders. The heat and high temperatures during the day and every low temperature at night due to the absence of cloud cover discouraged traders.

v  Traders faced the danger of highly poisonous desert creatures whose bites could result in death. These included snakes and scorpions.

v  Traders faced language difficulties. This hampered communication during trade. As such, “silent trade” had to be used initially.

v  The development of the Trans-Atlantic rout across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe: commodities like ivory and slaves were transported quickly to the coast of West Africa from where they were transported to Europe. Thus, the trade routes shifted from the Saharan desert to the Atlantic. Instead of the direct route to the North, they went via the coast of West Africa.

v  Commodities obtained from Western Sudan such as salt and gold faced competition from similar goods from other America cheaply. As result, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade decreased because Western Sudan could no longer claim a monopoly in production of certain commodities like salt and gold. In addition, gold from Zimbabwe via Sofala port by the Portuguese ended up in Europe.

v  The abolition of slave trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan trade. Slaves were the main item of trade. When slave trade was abolished, trade started to decline.

v  Shortage of water also led to the decline in trade. The oases in the Saharan desert provided water seasonally but they sometimes dried up. This made it difficult for the traders to cross the Saharan desert.

v  Wars: The war in Morocco and the one between Christians and Muslims disrupted the smooth running of the trade. The Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in 1591 AD disturbed the growth of the trade by taking gold at Wangara.
Finally, the Trans-Saharan trade collapsed in the 16th century. From this period onwards, West Africa witnessed the expansion of European occupation on the coast of West Africa.